I. General Character of Chinese Humanism
Confucius may rightly deserve to be called the founder of Chinese humanism. Confucian philosophy in its prominent characteristics is humanistic, occupying itself mainly with human relations and virtues, shunning studiously all questions that enter into enological subtleties or partake of the supernatural. Amid the mass of thought which Confucius has developed, that which stands out as the central thesis of the whole system is the doctrine of "Jen" or humanity. All else is but deduction from this. His ethics, his politics, his life ideals, all flow from this governing doctrine. It is here that we must look for the cardinal principle of humanism which has been displayed in Chinese cultural achievements for thousands of years.
"Jen" in the "Analects" expresses the Confucian ideal of cultivating humanity, developing human faculties, subliming one's personality, and upholding human rights. Chu Hsi, a famous Confucian scholar of the Sung Dynasty, defined "Jen" as "the virtue of the soul," "the principle of love," and "the centre of heaven and earth". It is stated in the Lexicon that the character "Jen" was supposed to be 千心in ancient script, which is explained as derived from 千, meaning thousand, and 心, meaning heart. This means "one thousand men with one heart-that is, all men living in harmony. And the ideograph in its present form 仁 is com posed of two characters: 人, meaning man, and 二, meaning two. Thus this simple ideograph signifies that there should be a correct procedure in human relationships - a proper way to meet each other. The egoist is absurd, and so is the altruist. Confucius cut straight through these two absurdities and proclaimed his humanism. He held that human relations should be based on the moral sentiment of "Jen" leading to positive efforts for the good of others.
The idea of "Jen" is also expressed in the conceptions of Hsiao孝 or filial piety and Ti 弟 or brotherly love. These two concepts express the same unselfish human feeling, the former signifying a state of spiritual communion in the eternity of time, and the latter signifying a state of spiritual communion in the infinity of space. In the "Analects," two other similar concepts are introduced, namely "Chung" 忠 or faithfulness and "Shu" 恕 or sympathy, the former meaning the state of mind when one is honest with oneself, and the latter meaning the state of mind when one is in sympathy with the outside world. For example, when a man truly loves his parents without reserve, he can be described as faithful, or he can be described as being honest with himself; but to love his parents, he must wish to know their desires, and so he reaches a state of mind when he is in sympathy with his parents. These two concepts and the two others mentioned before are one and the same; only in the former case, the concepts "Hsiao" or filial piety and "Ti" or brotherly love refer only to the relations within the family, while in the latter case the concepts "Chung" or faithfulness and "Shu" or sympathy have a wider significance. Such a state of mind, which we also describe as true and unselfish love or singleness of mind, is what Confucius meant by "Jen" or humanity.
Another outstanding feature of Chinese humanism is the word "I" 義or righteousness, which is attributable to Mencius. Mencius entered the world over a hundred years after the death of Confucius, but to his genius and devotion may be traced the final triumph of Chinese humanism. He claimed that "Jen" should
be coupled with "I" for the cultivation of personal virtues. For instance, when the Prince of Liang State inquired what he had brought to enrich his kingdom, Mencius replied, "but 'Jen' and '1';" and he then proceeded to show, with eloquent earnestness, how the pursuit of wealth would tend to anarchy while the pursuit of virtue would insure happiness and peace. And again, he said to the Prince of Ch'i State that a man should carry out his noble purpose, which he explained as "Jen" and "I". Then he proceeded to point out: "What one upholds in his heart is 'Jen'; what one upholds in his conduct is 'I'. One who is possessed of 'Jen' and 'I' is an Eminent Man." From this short passage, we venture to imply that "Jen" is the "sound principle" of warranting the internal sentiment, while "1" is the "proper way" of guiding the external conduct. So Mencius said: "Sympathy is the fundamental of 'Jen'; the sense of shame is the fundamental of '1'." One who has the sense of shame will naturally refrain from doing things which are not in conformity with the principle of "I". Hence he said: "The sense of shame is of great importance to a man."
However, Mencius seemed to have laid stress, in all his teachings, on the word "I". It was not that he ranked "I" above "Jen", but that he believed that if his conduct is in conformity with "I", a man would be leading a life of perfect goodness. This led Mencius to utter the noble sentiment: "Fish, I like; the paw of a bear, I like also. If I cannot have both of them, I prefer the latter to the former. Life, I like; '1', I like also. If I cannot have both of them, I prefer 'I' to life." This is exactly what Confucius said about "Jen": "One who is worthy of being a hero will not live to the detriment of 'Jen', but will sacrifice oneself for the attainment of 'Jen'." It is indeed a sublime moral sentiment when "'I' is preferred to life" and one "sacrifices oneself for the attainment of 'Jen.' These are the virtues which are inherent in the traditional spirit of the nation.
And again, the third excellent feature of Chinese humanism is the word "Li" 禮 or propriety. Hsun Tzu, a contemporary of Mencius, who contributed much to the advance of humanism, went further, by recommending "Li" as the norm of conduct. Indeed, the English language and Occidental thought seem alike in capable of supplying a term which can express the full meaning of "Li". To consider it as referring to politeness, or to the rules of etiquette, is to take a view quite too superficial. Although I am using the word "propriety", it really means much more than that. In many connections, it might mean "the social order," or "social institutions," or "all regulations that arise from the relations between man and man."
Confucius reiterated his advocacy of "Jen" as the prime virtue of life; Mencius gave "I" the position of a cardinal virtue parallel to that of "Jen"; Hsun Tzu stressed "Li" as a principal virtue to uphold "Jen" and to exercise "I". "'Jen' ," said Hsun Tzu, "means love and therefore it is beloved; 'I' means reason and therefore it is practical; 'Li' means restraint and therefore it is attainable." Hsun Tzu held that "by nature man is evil.... Thus conformity with man's natural disposition leads to usurpation and disorder, and culminates in violence and tyranny. Only under the restraint of 'Li' does man conform to modesty and reason, and yield to order."
Indeed, "Li" is a unique element in the teachings of Hsun Tzu. In society, as he long ago recognized, men are interrelated and united so as to maintain its order. But if man acts according to his hereditary nature and sentiment, he will follow his own desires and impulses with out regard to those of other men. Hence Hsun Tzu emphasized that the conduct of men living in a group must be ordered by "Li" in order to maintain their relations with the other members of the group. "Li" so conceived denotes something very important and fundamental in social life. It is a rule of conduct, one of the means of social control, in accordance with which society seems always to have been erected.
The conception of "Li" as a means of social control is not a principle peculiar to Hsun Tzu. Both Confucius and Mencius taught the same. There have often been discussions about the conflict between individual freedom and public welfare, in the furtherance of which an individual is bound to share. Both moralists and legalists are interested in this subject, but they differ widely in their beliefs. For instance, Confucius said: "If you guide the people by laws, and enforce the laws by punishment, they will lose the sense of shame and seek to evade them; but if you guide them by a virtuous example and make them conform to 'Li', they will be ashamed to transgress against laws". Confucius, therefore, ranked "Li" above law for the regulation of public and private behavior.
The Legalists, as typified by Han Fei, a laborious scholar and acute thinker of the third century before Christ, stood for firm and autocratic government and for laws as the framework of social order. But Hsun Tzu seemed to be able to reconcile these opposite views, maintaining that law is documentary while "Li" is its essential practice. According to his teachings, laws cannot be well enforced if people do not behave in conformity with "Li". Thus "Li" and laws are mutually supplementary in keeping social order and cultivating personal virtues. However, Hsun Tzu attempted to build up an "universal cultural pattern" for the framework of human society.
My conclusion, therefore, is that "Jen", "I" and "Li" are the three cardinal virtues which underlie Chinese humanism. They are the norms of conduct which have been followed by the Chinese people for thousands of years. Each has served a useful purpose in the achievement of Chinese culture and each is essential to the other two as necessary complements. "Jen", as the prime virtue of life, leads the way in prompting us to positive efforts for the good of others; "I" follows, to collaborate with "Jen", as the highest principle embodied in the activities of mankind; and "Li", as the outward expression of moral sentiment, sheds light on "Jen" and "I" by bringing the whole conduct into harmony with reason and order, and thus completes the work of building up the foundation of humanism.
II. The Spirit of Chinese Humanism
Now let us consider the spirit of Chinese humanism, which has become a major force in unifying China and definitely moulded the mentality and temperament of the Chinese people. First, the Confucian scholars, educated to regard "Jen" as the prime virtue of life, would naturally give it the first place in their life ideals. "Jen" means seeds- the seeds in the stones of peach and apricot, which, after being sown in the soil, will shoot and grow. This is to show that all things spring into life. The concept of "Jen" has deeply permeated Chinese thought, and hence the Chinese philosophers evince a disposition to appreciate and enjoy life. In the "Yi Ching" or the Book of Change, we read, "For the universe, the most essential is life." "How great is heaven; all things begin into existence! How mighty is earth; all things spring into life!" So heaven begets all things; earth nourishes them; men enjoy them. Thus men live in the world just as the plants grow on the land. They nourish and propagate themselves. This is what we read in the "Shih Ching" or the Book of Odes: "Great is heaven, ruling in majesty; by grace of heaven, all is eternity."
China, indeed, is a land where the great mass of the people have to toil and struggle incessantly in order to obtain even the bare necessities of daily existence. Although they cannot enjoy sufficiency of food, yet they are contented with whatever Heaven may give them. Profoundly thankful they are when they can be sure of three meals a day to stave off the pangs of hunger from themselves and their families. Whatever may be their inmost thoughts, the Chinese bear their terrible hardships and privations with splendid heroism and little complaining. There is one wonderful characteristic of the Chinese people that has been an important factor in steadying the nation. They are imbued with at least one great ideal, whith touches their life in every direction. Every man, rich or poor, learned or uneducated, has a profound respect for life. They may lament over their many ills, but they never curse life. What they insist on is simply the ideal that in order to live well, they must first live. The passionate love of life is a national characteristic, which serves to distinguish the Chinese people from the Hindus who conceive the present world "as a sea of bitterness," and to whom "life is like a dream, like a bubble, like a shadow, like the morning dew, like lightning."
Secondly, it will be noted that a profound respect for life is coupled with a corresponding notion of rational happiness. The Chinese humanists attempt no separation of happiness and virtue. As to the characterization of the Superior Man, Confucius in the "Analects" pointed out that the way of the Superior Man has- three essentials - "Jen" without anxiety, "Chih" or wisdom without perplexity, and "Yung" or courage without fear. Thus Confucius made happiness the first requisite of the way of the Superior Man. Mencius said that his mind appreciated "Li" and "I" as much as his taste enjoyed pork and beef. Wang Hsin-chai, a scholar of the Ming Dynasty, wrote a song of "Learning and Happiness", in which he said: "Happiness is to enjoy learning; learning is to study happiness.' This passage suffices to show the combination of happiness and virtue. In this connection, some Chinese sayings may be cited as relevant examples: "Happiness follows in the footsteps of virtue, as shadow follows substance." "Those who have not tasted the bitterness of life's bitters can never appreciate the sweetness of life's sweets." The last of these sayings has taken so strong a hold on the mind of the Chinese people as to mould their mentality and temperament. For the theory of virtue as its own reward is too abstruse for the mass of mankind. The great majority are so constituted that virtue has no charms for them if it is totally dissociated from happiness.
But rational happiness, as conceived by the Chinese humanists, may be further interpreted as follows:
(1) By rational happiness is meant not the happiness of the moment, but the happiness that endures throughout a lifetime, a happy life. Hence we are not to allow ourselves to indulge in extreme satisfaction of desires and appetites. We must master our desires and appetites. Happiness is thus combined with virtue. This view is prominent in the writings of the Confucian school. In the "Li Chi" or the Book of Rites, we read: "Thus the ancient kings, in their institution of rites and music, were not to give extreme satisfaction to desires and appetites. They were to teach people to moderate their likes and dislikes, and thus to return to the norm of humanity." The reason for this is not difficult to discern: "Music establishes union and harmony; rites establish difference and distinction. From union comes mutual affection; from distinction, mutual respect."
(2) It is just for this reason that rational happiness is regarded as far more important than physical pleasure, for the former is enduring, the latter ephemeral. So a man must not depend for his happiness upon externals; he must have blessedness in his own self. The Chinese humanists, like the Stoics, maintained that external circumstances are wholly beyond our control. As to himself, Confucius said: "Living on coarse rice and water, with bent arm for pillow, I am still happy. Wealth and honours are to me but wandering clouds." Thus happiness cannot totally exclude virtue. For a man must depend for his happiness not upon externals, but upon his own virtue.
(3) The ideal of rational happiness tends towards a positive rather than a negative conception of it. The Chinese humanists aim not merely at negative absence of pain, as the Hindus do, but also at conscious enjoyment. They aim not merely at the inner tranquility of mind, as the Epicureans did, but also at the good of activity. So what man hopes for is not merely to avoid pain but also to enjoy happiness; not merely to live in quiet contentment, but also to utilize his ability and consciously do something. Confucius taught us that "the Superior Man seeks to improve himself without rest." Confucius' own life is certainly a good example of this aspect of his teachings. He engaged to carry forward the eternal quest of mankind for ways and means with which to "pacify the world." He sought far and wide for the key to the accomplishment of this great task. The fruits of his labours are a priceless heritage. Although in the end he must confess the futility of his quest, his persistence in carrying it on was in itself a great contribution. Virtue consists in activity, and hence happiness is associated with virtue. The fundamental principle underlying the combination of happiness and virtue has been deeply impressed upon the Chinese mind.
Thirdly, Chinese humanism emphasizes human relationship and teaches us how to live in harmony with one another. A sense of justice and fairness, a spirit of tolerance, a readiness to compromise, coupled with a firm determination to enforce the observance of these virtues against the teachings of egoists and altruists-these are the true foundations of human relations. In ancient China, Mo Tzu, who made the principle of "Jen" the root of all virtues, advocated the duty of equal and universal love. He assured us that his altruism would lead to a world of unity and a durable peace. There was another school, opposed to Altruism, but contemporaneous with it, advocating Egoism. Its reputed founder was Yang Chu, whose doctrine was, as Mencius said, "each one for himself. Though he might benefit the world by plucking out a single hair, he would not do it." Both of these doctrines are too extreme and can only lead to calamities. For "Jen" must play its part in the relations between different kinds of people. Its exaggeration or total absence would upset the social order.
Humanists offered a standard to rectify their fallacies. They called it the way of "Chung Yung" 中庸之道- that is, the doctrine of the mean. Confucius often talked about "Chung Yung" in his teachings and said that it is rather difficult to attain. To secure the mean is not to pursue a middle course; it means rather the harmony of the universe. As to the fault of a middle course, Confucius said, "I hate a semblance which is not the reality. I hate the darnel, lest it be confounded with the corn. I hate glib-tonguedness, lest it be confounded with sincerity. I hate the music of 'Cheng', lest it be confounded with true music. I hate the reddish blue, lest it be confounded with vermillion. I hate your good careful men of the villages, lest they be confounded with the truly virtuous."
As to the "careful men of the villages," Mencius offered a very good illustration: "If you would blame them, you have not much to say. If you would criticize them, you have nothing to criticize. They agree with the current opinion, and consent with vulgar ways of the time. Their principles have a semblance of loyalty and good faith. Their conduct has a semblance of prudence and purity. All men are pleased with them and they think themselves right, so that it is impossible to proceed with them to the principles of Yao and Shun (two ancient sage kings)." Thus the way of middle course implies that a man is contented with vulgar ways and views injurious to virtues, takes no decisive step, and makes no advancement.
But the way of "Chung 'Yung" is a sense of justice and fairness, a spirit of tolerance, a state of harmony, and a doctrine of equality. To speak plainly, "Chung Yung" is a way of action which avoids going to extremes, or a state of mind in which human reasoning and feeling reach a perfect harmony. It is for this reason that Confucius thought it more difficult to reach the goal of "Chung Yung" than to lay down one's life for the cause of justice. But it can be approached gradually by continuous efforts in cultivation and refinement. Most foreigners, when they come to China, are deeply impressed by the moderation and self-restraint of the Chinese people. For instance, during World War II, the Japanese had been arrogantly cruel; they had starved and bayoneted the Chinese, and tortured them in public. However, revenge is not a Chinese characteristic. When the day of reckoning came, most foreigners were almost shocked at the generosity which the Chinese people showed the brutal invaders. The only explanation for this is that the way of "Chung Yung" has been put into action and has become one of the traditional virtues of the people.
And fourthly, "Jen" is always coupled with "Ai" 愛 or love. Mencius said: "'Jen' is love due to men..... One who loves men will certainly be loved by men." In fact, love is a feature common to mankind, but love which emerges from "Jen" is peculiar to the Chinese humanists. Its expression always takes the form of sympathy, but the Chinese "Ai" is a bit different from sympathy. "Ai" manifests itself in different degrees of intensity, while sympathy is merely a kind of emotional response. And again, sympathy may be aroused promptly without discrimination. "Ai" is consistent with the exercise in due degree of the relative affections, such as filial piety, brotherly love, conjugal affection, etc. The doctrine of Mo Tzu, as we have seen, was rejected by the humanists, particularly by Mencius, as heretical, on the ground of its inconsistency with the duty of special or exclusive affection for one's own kin.
It requires little reflection to realize that "Jen" and "Ai" are based on the virtue of filial piety. Humanism emphasizes human relationships. The commonest human relationships are five - governmental, parental, conjugal, fraternal, and that of friendship. Filial piety, as the virtue connected with the relationship between child and parents, is the first among these relationship virtues. In China, filial piety is not merely a domestic virtue, but diffuses its influence through all actions of life; it originates with the bonds of a common parentage and extends to other relationships until it reaches the stage of· "Jen". As to the development of "J en", Confucius said in the "Analects," "The boy, coming in, should exercise filial piety, and going out, brotherly love. He should be earnest and faithful, loving all men and seeking presence of 'Jen'." Confucius, with a keen sense of reality and practicality, made the virtue of filial piety the chief cornerstone of the social structure. By extending this virtue in time, and diffusing its influence through all the other relationship virtues, he made it both the bond of family solidarity and the connection between succeeding generations. In its broader extensions, filial piety becomes the rational basis for the love due to men - the principle of "Jen".
It is chiefly because of this virtue of filial piety that the Chinese people have shown much concern about the assurance of having children. It may involve continuous self-sacrifice of many kinds, but it has served as the basis for a happy family life. In China, there are many happy couples whose marriages were arranged by their parents; they have no experience of love-making, wooing, and romance, but they remain united and maintain their happiness. The reason is that love, no matter how it starts, is something that must be consciously created and nourished. True and lasting love depends on having children. In this connection, the Chinese family and its virtues deserve to be better known and understood by the Occidental public for their marital security and happiness.
In the manner in which Chinese humanism has been thus affirmed, emphasized, and illustrated, we perceive a mighty factor in the continuity and perpetuity of Chinese culture and national existence. It has never encountered any system of ideas that could withstand its influence. If modern civilization is to survive, human relations, instead of being based on domination and exploitation, must be founded on a sense of justice and fairness, a spirit of tolerance, and a tie of mutual affection-all of which are contained in the significant word "Jen". The Chinese people can look back with justifiable pride on their part in the advocacy of this great principle of "Jen", as has been displayed in the various forms of intellectual activities which make up the fabric of Chinese culture.